# Walmart Invasion

As an invasion biologist, the process of spatial spread is at the heart of what I do. When I came across this dataset of Walmart store openings since 1962 I couldn’t help but see it as an invasion front which looks a lot like a biological invasion or (albeit slow) epidemic.

The video shows monthly store openings (in red) between 1962 and 2006.

You can get the code I wrote for generating this visualization on my github page.

# An update on visualizing Bayesian updating

A while ago I wrote this post with some R code to visualize the updating of a beta distribution as the outcome of Bernoulli trials are observed. The code provided a single plot of this process, with all the curves overlayed on top of one another. Then John Myles White (co-author of Machine Learning for Hackers) piped up on twitter and said that he’d like to see it as an animation. Challenge accepted – and with an additional twist.

The video shows how two observers who approach the problem with different beliefs (priors) converge toward the same conclusion about the value of the unknown parameter after making enough observations.

I’ve posted the code here.

# The essence of a handwritten digit

If you haven’t yet discovered the competitive machine learning site kaggle.com, please do so now. I’ll wait.

Great – so, you checked it out, fell in love and have made it back. I recently downloaded the data for the getting started competition. It consists of 42000 labelled images (28×28) of hand written digits 0-9. The competition is a straight forward supervised learning problem of OCR (Optical Character Recognition). There are two sample R scripts on the site to get you started. They implement the k-nearest neighbours and Random Forest algorithms.

I wanted to get  started by visualizing all of the training data by rendering some sort of an average of each character. Visualizing the data is a great first step to developing a model. Here’s how I did it:

train<-as.matrix(train)

##Color ramp def.
colors<-c('white','black')
cus_col<-colorRampPalette(colors=colors)

## Plot the average image of each digit
par(mfrow=c(4,3),pty='s',mar=c(1,1,1,1),xaxt='n',yaxt='n')
all_img<-array(dim=c(10,28*28))
for(di in 0:9)
{
print(di)
all_img[di+1,]<-apply(train[train[,1]==di,-1],2,sum)
all_img[di+1,]<-all_img[di+1,]/max(all_img[di+1,])*255

z<-array(all_img[di+1,],dim=c(28,28))
z<-z[,28:1] ##right side up
image(1:28,1:28,z,main=di,col=cus_col(256))
}

Which gives you:
Notice the wobbly looking ‘1’. You can see that there is some variance in the angle of the slant, with a tenancy toward leaning right. I imagine that this is due to the bias toward right handed individuals in the sample.

I also wanted to generate a pdf plot of all of the training set, to get myself an idea of what kind of anomalous instances I should expect.

If you are interested, dear reader, here is my code to do just that.

pdf('train_letters.pdf')
par(mfrow=c(4,4),pty='s',mar=c(3,3,3,3),xaxt='n',yaxt='n')
for(i in 1:nrow(train))
{
z<-array(train[i,-1],dim=c(28,28))
z<-z[,28:1] ##right side up
image(1:28,1:28,z,main=train[i,1],col=cus_col(256))
print(i)
}
dev.off()

Which will give you a 2625 page pdf of every character in the training set which you can, um, casually peruse.
As of the time of writing, the current leading submission has a classification accuracy of 99.27%. There is no cash for this competition, but the knowledge gained from taking a stab at it is priceless. So give it a shot!

# Simulation: The modeller’s laboratory

In his 2004 paper in Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Steven Peck argues:

Simulation models can be used to mimic complex systems, but unlike nature, can be manipulated in ways that would be impossible, too costly or unethical to do in natural systems. Simulation can add to theory development and testing, can offer hypotheses about the way the world works and can give guidance as to which data are most important to gather experimentally.

A sentiment I agree with fully. However, another important use of simulation is in the experimentation phase of model development before confronting models with data. In ecology, epidemiology and related fields, it is common to have observational data (as opposed to controlled, randomized experiments). In these situations, two questions need to be asked:

1. What can we observe about the system? (ie what will the data look like?)
2. Given what we can observe (1), will our model(s) be able to capture the underlying process and parameters?

In order to answer these questions, we need to be able to simulate the hypothesized processes and use the simulated observations to fit our model(s). This process has the additional benefit of forcing us to understand the process that we are modelling. In fact, I find that the act of formalizing the hypothesized process into a coded simulation makes the formulation of the likelihood function more straightforward.

Let’s look at an example. In a recent paper in the Journal of Applied Ecology, we model the trip taking behaviour of recreational boaters in Ontario. Through a survey, we observed the trip outcomes of a sample of boaters. We wanted to compare two models of the trip taking process (see the paper for model descriptions).

###############################
##### RUM v GM sim tests ######
##
## Corey Chivers, 2012
##
###############################

n_boaters<-50
n_lakes<-750
n_trips<-rpois(n_boaters,16)

euclidian<-function(from_x,from_y,to_x,to_y)
{
return( sqrt( (from_x-to_x)^2 + (from_y-to_y)^2 ) )
}
sim_boaters<-function(N=n_boaters)
{
##Home locations
return(as.matrix(cbind(runif(N,0,100),runif(N,0,100)) ))
}
sim_lakes<-function(N=n_lakes)
{
x<-cbind(runif(N,0,100))
y<-cbind(runif(N,0,100))
size<-abs(rnorm(N,x+y,x+y))
return(cbind(x,y,size))
}
get_d_mat<-function()
{
## matrix of boaterxlake distances
d_mat<-array(dim=c(n_boaters,n_lakes))
for(b in 1:n_boaters)
{
d_mat[b,]<-euclidian( boater[b,1],boater[b,2],lakes[,1],lakes[,2] )
}
return(d_mat)
}
sim_trips<-function(par,M)
{
trips<-list()
for(b in 1:n_boaters)
{
P<-M(par,b)
trips[[b]]<-sample(1:n_lakes,n_trips[b],p=P,replace=TRUE)
}
return(trips)
}

RUM<-function(par,b) ## par{b1,b2}
{
exp_sum_V<-sum(exp(par[1]*lakes[,3]+par[2]*d_mat[b,]) )
V<-exp(par[1]*lakes[,3]+par[2]*d_mat[b,])
p_j<-V/exp_sum_V
return(p_j)
}
GM<-function(par,b) ## par{e,d}
{
Ai<-sum(lakes[,3]^(par[1]) * d_mat[b,]^(-par[2]))
WD<-lakes[,3]^(par[1]) * d_mat[b,]^(-par[2])
p_j<-WD/Ai
return(p_j)
}
ll<-function(par,M,data,give_neg=-1)
{
ll<-0
ll<-sapply(1:n_boaters,function(b){
P_b<-M(par,b)
l_tmp<-0
for(t in 1:length(data[[b]]))
l_tmp<-l_tmp+log(P_b[ data[[b]][t] ] )
return(l_tmp)
})
return(give_neg*sum(ll))
}
dAIC<-function(ll)
{
delta_aic<-numeric(length(ll[,1]))
for(i in 1:length(ll[,1]))
{
delta_aic[i]<-(2*ll[i,2]+(2*n_par))-(2*ll[i,1]+(2*n_par))
}
return(delta_aic)
}
{
if(!is.null(pdffile))
pdf(pdffile)

par(mgp=c(0.5,0,0),cex=1.2,mfrow=c(1,2),mar=c(1,2,1,0.5),pty='s')
col=rgb(0,0,1,0.05)
plot(lakes[,1],lakes[,2],cex=lakes[,3]/200, xlab='Lon', ylab='Lat',xaxt='n',yaxt='n')
{
for(i in 1:n_boaters)
{
for(tr in 1:length(trips[[i]]))
{
segments(boater[i,1],boater[i,2],lakes[trips[[i]],1],lakes[trips[[i]],2],col=col,lwd=2)
}
points(boater[i,1],boater[i,2],pch=15,col='blue',cex=0.5)
}
}

### Make a legend ###
plot(1,1,col='white', xlab='', ylab='',xaxt='n',yaxt='n',xlim=c(0,1),ylim=c(0,1))
yloc<-c(0.9,0.8,0.7,0.6)
n_tr<-c(5,10,15,20)
for(i in 1:4)
{
for(n in 1:n_tr[i])
segments(0.1,yloc[i],0.5,yloc[i],col=col,lwd=3)
text(0.6,yloc[i],n_tr[i])
}
text(0.82,0.75,"Number\nof trips")

yloc<-c(0.4,0.3,0.2,0.1)
l_size<-c(200,400,600,800)
for(i in 1:4)
{
for(n in 1:n_tr[i])
points(0.3,yloc[i],cex=l_size[i]/200)
text(0.5,yloc[i],l_size[i])
}
text(0.7,0.25,"Size\nof lake")

if(!is.null(pdffile))
dev.off()
}

With all of the relevant functions defined, we then simulate behaviour under each model, fit to each model and compare our ability to both capture the generating parameter values and to distinguish between the competing models.

boater<-sim_boaters()
lakes<-sim_lakes()
d_mat<-get_d_mat()

n_sims<-1000
n_par<-2

save_par<-array(dim=c(n_sims,2*n_par))
ll_save<-array(dim=c(n_sims,2))

### RUM GENERATING ###
for(i in 1:n_sims)
{
lakes<-sim_lakes()
d_mat<-get_d_mat()
## pars{b1,b2}
pars<-c(runif(1,0.01,0.1),runif(1,-10.5,-1.5))
trips<-sim_trips(pars,RUM)
opt<-optim(pars,ll,M=RUM,data=trips)

save_par[i,]<-c(pars,opt\$par)

pars<-c(0.5,1,0,0) #seeds
opt2<-optim(pars,ll,M=GM,data=trips)

ll_save[i,]<-c(opt\$value,opt2\$value)
print(i)
}
par(mfrow=c(1,2),pty='s')
plot(ll_save)
abline(0,1,lty=2)

hist(dAIC(ll_save))
ll_saveRUM<-ll_save
save_parRUM<-save_par

par(mfrow=c(2,2),pty='s')
param_names<-c('B1','B2')
for(i in 1:n_par)
{
plot(save_parRUM[,i],save_parRUM[,i+n_par],xlab=paste('Generating ',param_names[i]),ylab=paste('Fit ',param_names[i]))
abline(0,1)
}

### GM GENERATING ###
for(i in 1:n_sims)
{
lakes<-sim_lakes()
d_mat<-get_d_mat()
## par{e,d}
e<-runif(1,0.1,0.9)
d<-runif(1,1,5)
pars<-c(e,d)
trips<-sim_trips(pars,GM)
opt<-optim(pars,ll,M=GM,data=trips)

save_par[i,]<-c(pars,opt\$par)

pars<-c(0.001,-2) #seeds
opt2<-optim(pars,ll,M=RUM,data=trips)

ll_save[i,]<-c(opt\$value,opt2\$value)
print(i)
}

x11()
par(mfrow=c(1,2),pty='s')
plot(ll_save)
abline(0,1,lty=2)

hist(dAIC(ll_save))
ll_saveGM<-ll_save
save_parGM<-save_par

par(mfrow=c(2,2),pty='s')
param_names<-c('e','d')
for(i in 1:n_par)
{
plot(save_parGM[,i],save_parGM[,i+n_par],xlab=paste('Generating ',param_names[i]),ylab=paste('Fit ',param_names[i]))
abline(0,1)
}

### Plot deltaAIC distributions ###
par(mfrow=c(1,2),pty='s')
hist(dAIC(ll_saveGM),breaks=30)
hist(dAIC(ll_saveRUM),breaks=30)

plot_trips()

After verifying that we can both distinguish between the two models, and can recapture the generating parameters, we then use simulation, in the manner described by Peck (2004), to analyse the implications of using alternative models of boater behaviour on the spread of invasive species.

Insights derived from simulation need to be complimented with controlled, randomized experiments. However, the use of simulation as a laboratory for the statistical modeller is indispensable, and you can do it all without putting a white coat on – unless you’re into that kind of thing.

# Olympic body match and 1:1 BMI

In my morning attempt to read the whole internet before beginning work, I came across a program on the BBC website which allows you to see which Olympic athletes are your body doubles. Or rather, which athletes share your height and weight, and therefore your body mass index. Being a Canadian, I exist in an uneasy hybrid world of measurements, comfortable with metric units for some things and imperial for others. I know my height in cm (185), and my weight in lbs (185). This makes my Olympic ‘body double’ Elizabeth Gleadle, the Canadian javelin thrower.

Apart from discovering that I may have a body type for women’s competitive javelin, I was intrigued by the symmetry of height(cm) = weight(lbs). Over what range is this equivalence healthy? A quick googling of BMI tells me that ‘normal’ range of BMI is from 18.5 to 25. I come in at 24.5; well fed, to be sure, but in the safe zone.

Scratching this curiosity itch is nothing that can’t be handled by a quick R script. Looks like you can carry the height = weight equivalence, adding a pound for each cm of height, all the way up to about 8 feet tall (~245lbs) before you’re underweight, according to BMI.

Okay, now I should get to work.

Code for the curious.

lowerH<-100
upperH<-162.5+(5*21.5)

hw<-seq(lowerH,upperH,length.out=100)
BMI<-numeric(100)
counter=1
for(i in hw)
{
h<-i
w<-i
BMI[counter]<-(w/2.205)/(1/100*h)^2
counter=counter+1
}

png('BMI_sameWH.png')
plot(hw,BMI,type='l',xlab='Height(cm) = Weight(lbs)',main='Same height as weight BMI')
polygon(x=c(90,300,300,90),y=c(50,50,30,30),col=colors()[325])
polygon(x=c(90,300,300,90),y=c(30,30,25,25),col=colors()[330])
polygon(x=c(90,300,300,90),y=c(25,25,18.5,18.5),col=colors()[235])
polygon(x=c(90,300,300,90),y=c(18.5,18.5,0,0),col=colors()[240])
lines(hw,BMI,lwd=2,col='red')
abline(h=18.5)
abline(h=25)
abline(h=30)
text(250,37.5,label='Obesity')
text(250,27.5,label='Overweight')
text(150,21,label='Normal')
text(150,16.75,label='Underweight')
points(185,(185/2.205)/(1/100*185)^2,pch=8,cex=2,col='blue')
legend('topright',legend="The sweet spot\n 185cm, 185lbs\n", pch=8,col='blue',bg='white')
dev.off()
#underweight = <18.5
#Normal weight = 18.5–24.9
#Overweight = 25–29.9

# Dynamical systems: Mapping chaos with R

Chaos. Hectic, seemingly unpredictable, complex dynamics. In a word: fun. I usually stick to the warm and fuzzy world of stochasticity and probability distributions, but this post will be (almost) entirely devoid of randomness. While chaotic dynamics are entirely deterministic, their sensitivity to initial conditions can trick the observer into seeing iid.

In ecology, chaotic dynamics can emerge from a very simple model of population.

$x_{t+1} = r x_t(1-x_t)$

Where the population in time-step t+1 is dependent on the population at time step t, and some intrinsic rate of growth, r. This is known as the logistic (or quadratic) map. For any starting value of x at t0, the entire evolution of the system can be computed exactly. However, there some values of r for which the system will diverge substantially with even a very slight change in the initial position.

We can see the behaviour of this model by simply plotting the time series of population sizes. Another, and particularly instructive way of visualizing the dynamics, is through the use of a cobweb plot. In this representation, we can see how the population x at time t maps to population x at time t+1 by reflecting through the 1:1 line. Each representation is plotted here:

You can plot realizations of the system using the following R script.

q_map<-function(r=1,x_o=runif(1,0,1),N=100,burn_in=0,...)
{
par(mfrow=c(2,1),mar=c(4,4,1,2),lwd=2)
############# Trace #############
x<-array(dim=N)
x[1]<-x_o
for(i in 2:N)
x[i]<-r*x[i-1]*(1-x[i-1])

plot(x[(burn_in+1):N],type='l',xlab='t',ylab='x',...)
#################################

x<-seq(from=0,to=1,length.out=100)
x_np1<-array(dim=100)
for(i in 1:length(x))
x_np1[i]<-r*x[i]*(1-x[i])

plot(x,x_np1,type='l',xlab=expression(x[t]),ylab=expression(x[t+1]))
abline(0,1)

start=x_o
vert=FALSE
lines(x=c(start,start),y=c(0,r*start*(1-start)) )
for(i in 1:(2*N))
{
if(vert)
{
lines(x=c(start,start),y=c(start,r*start*(1-start)) )
vert=FALSE
}
else
{
lines(x=c(start,
r*start*(1-start)),
y=c(r*start*(1-start),
r*start*(1-start)) )
vert=TRUE
start=r*start*(1-start)
}
}
#################################
}

To use, simply call the function with any value of r, and a starting position between 0 an 1.

q_map(r=3.84,x_o=0.4)

Fun right?

Now that you’ve tried a few different values of r at a few starting positions, it’s time to look a little closer at what ranges of r values produce chaotic behaviour, which result in stable orbits, and which lead to dampening oscillations toward fixed points. There is a rigorous mathematics behind this kind of analysis of dynamic systems, but we’re just going to do some numerical experimentation using trusty R and a bit of cpu time.

To do this, we’ll need to iterate across a range of r values, and at each one start a dynamical system with a random starting point (told you there would be some randomness in this post). After some large number of time-steps, we’ll record where the system ended up. Plotting the results, we can see a series of period doubling (2,4,8, etc) bifurcations interspersed with regions of chaotic behaviour.

library(parallel)
bifurcation<-function(from=3,to=4,res=500,
x_o=runif(1,0,1),N=500,reps=500,cores=4)
{
r_s<-seq(from=from,to=to,length.out=res)
r<-numeric(res*reps)
for(i in 1:res)
r[((i-1)*reps+1):(i*reps)]<-r_s[i]

x<-array(dim=N)

iterate<-mclapply(1:(res*reps),
mc.cores=cores,
function(k){
x[1]<-runif(1,0,1)
for(i in 2:N)
x[i]<-r[k]*x[i-1]*(1-x[i-1])

return(x[N])
})

plot(r,iterate,pch=15,cex=0.1)

return(cbind(r,iterate))
}

#warning: Even in parallel with 4 cores, this is by no means fast code!
bi<-bifurcation()
png('chaos.png',width=1000,height=850)
par(bg='black',col='green',col.main='green',cex=1)
plot(bi,col='green',xlab='R',ylab='n --> inf',main='',pch=15,cex=0.2)
dev.off()

This plot is known as a bifurcation diagram and is likely a familiar sight.

Hopefully working through the R code and running it yourself will help you interpret cobweb plots, as well as bifurcation diagrams. It is really quite amazing how the simple looking logistic map equation can lead to such interesting behaviour.

# R Workshop: Introducing Slidify – HTML5 slides from R markdown

### Tomson House: 650 McTavish, H3A 1Y2, Montréal, QC <– new social setting!

guRu: Ramnath Vaidyanathan (McGill University)

Ramnath Vaidyanathan will introduce the group to slidify, his brand new R package.

From the slidify website:

“The objective of slidify is to make it easy to create reproducible HTML5 presentations from .Rmd files. The guiding philosophy of slidify is to completely separate writing of content from its rendering, so that content can be written once in R Markdown, and rendered as an HTML5 presentation using any of the HTML5 slide frameworks supported.”

The package is currently in alpha and therefore not yet available on cran. You can find install instructions here.

Ramnath Vaidyanathan is Assistant Professor of Operations Management at McGill University’s Desautels Faculty of Management.

This is a meeting of the Montreal R Users Group. We’re open to everyone! Sign up to RSVP!